On October 18, it was reportein the news that the central government has been given more time for framing rules under the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019.  The President had given assent to this Act in December 2019 and the Act came into force in January 2020.   Similarly, about two years have passed since the new labour codes were passed by Parliament, and the final Rules are yet to be published.  This raises the question how long the government can take to frame Rules and what is the procedure guiding this.  In this blog, we discuss the same.

Under the Constitution, the Legislature has the power to make laws and the Executive is responsible for implementing them.  Often, the Legislature enacts a law covering the general principles and policies, and delegates the power to the Executive for specifying certain details for the implementation of a law.  For example, the Citizenship Amendment Act provides who will be eligible for citizenship.  The certificate of registration or naturalization to a person will be issued, subject to conditions, restrictions, and manner as may be prescribed by the central government through Rules.  Delay in framing Rules results in delay in implementing the law, since the necessary details are not available.  For example, new labour codes provide a social security scheme for gig economy workers such as Swiggy and Zomato delivery persons and Uber and Ola drivers.  These benefits as per these Codes are yet to be rolled out as the Rules are yet to be notified.

Timelines and checks and balances for adherence

Each House of Parliament has a Committee of Members to examine Rules, Regulations, and government orders in detail called the Committee on Subordinate Legislation.  Over the years, the recommendations of these Committees have shaped the evolution of the procedure and timelines for framing subordinate legislation.  These are reflected in the Manual of Parliamentary Procedures issued by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs, which provides detailed guidelines.

Ordinarily, Rules, Regulations, and bye-laws are to be framed within six months from the date on which the concerned Act came into force.   Post that, the concerned Ministry is required to seek an extension from the Parliamentary Committees on Subordinate Legislation.  The reason for the extension needs to be stated.   Such extensions may be granted for a maximum period of three months at a time.  For example, in case of Rules under the Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019, at an earlier instance, an extension was granted on account of the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Activity

Timeline

  • Publication of Rules, Regulations, and Bye-Laws, where public consultation is required under the Act
  • A minimum of 30 days for public feedback
  • Consequently, for publication,
  • Three months, if the number of suggestions is small
  • Six months, if the number of suggestions is large
  • Publication of Rules, Regulations, and Bye-Laws, not requiring public consultation
  • Six months from the date on which the concerned Act came into force
  • Any extension for publication
  • A maximum of three months at a time

To ensure monitoring, every Ministry is required to prepare a quarterly report on the status of subordinate legislation not framed and share it with the Ministry of Law and Justice.  These reports are not available in the public domain.

Recommendations to address delays

Over the years, the Subordinate Legislation Committees in both Houses have observed multiple instances of non-adherence to the above timelines by various Ministries.  To address this, they have made the following key recommendations:

  • Statement on reasons for the delay: In 2011, Rajya Sabha Committee recommended that while laying Rules/Regulations before Parliament, the Ministry should also lay a statement explaining the reasons for the delay, if any.
  • Scrutiny of delays by the Cabinet Secretary:  In 2016, the Rajya Sabha Committee recommended that the Cabinet Secretary should continue the practice of calling the Secretaries of concerned Ministries/Departments, to explain the reasons for the delay in framing the subordinate legislation.  Each Ministry should send a quarterly status report to the Cabinet Secretariat.
  • Revisiting guidelines: In 2011, Lok Sabha Committee recommended that the 1986 guidelines should be revisited and all major recommendations of the Committee should be incorporated.  However, as per the Action Taken Report, the government observed that the ministries consider the extant guidelines adequate and these guidelines were re-iterated in 2012.

Are all Rules under an Act required to be framed?

Usually, the expressions used in an Act are “The Central Government may, by notification, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.”, or “as may be prescribed”.  Hence, it may appear that the laws aim to enable rule-making instead of mandate rule-making.  However, certain provisions of an Act cannot be brought into force if the required details have not been prescribed under the Rules.  This makes the implementation of the Act consequent to the publication of respective Rules.  For example, the Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act, 2022 enables the police and certain other persons to collect identity-related information about certain persons.  It provides that the manner of collection of such information may be specified by the central government.  Unless the manner is prescribed, such collection cannot take place.

That said, some other rule-making powers may be enabling in nature and subject to discretion by the concerned Ministry.  In 2016, Rajya Sabha Committee on Subordinate Legislation examined the status of Rules and Regulations to be framed under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.  It observed that the Ministry of Power had held that two Rules and three Regulations under this Act were not necessary.   The Ministry of Law and Justice had opined that those deemed not necessary were enabling provisions meant for unforeseen circumstances.  The Rajya Sabha Committee (2016) had recommended that where the Ministry does not feel the need for framing subordinate legislation, the Minister should table a statement in Parliament, stating reasons for such a conclusion.

Some key issues related to subordinate legislation

The Legislature delegates the power to specify details for the implementation of a law to the Executive through powers for framing subordinate legislation.  Hence, it is important to ensure these are well-scrutinised so that they are within the limits envisaged in the law.

  • Capacity of Committees on Subordinate Legislation:  Parliamentary Committees on Subordinate Legislation have the responsibility to examine Rules in detail.  In past, they have examined some key rules, regulations, and notifications regarding e-commerceliability of internet-based services, and demonetisation.  However, usually, they are able to examine only a fraction of subordinate legislation in detail.  For more details, please see the PRS discussion paper here.
  • Uniformity of standards:  Countries such as UKUSAAustralia, and Canada have overarching legislation for regulating the framing of subordinate legislation.  These laws provide for the manner of public consultation, timelines, drafting standards, and a common register.  India does not have any similar law.  In India, the detail whether public consultation for subordinate legislation is required or not, is specified in respective Acts.  The General Clauses Act, 1897 also governs certain aspects of the framing of subordinate legislation.  In addition, the Pre-Legislative Consultation Policy, 2014 guides the pre-legislative consultation on subordinate legislation.

See here for our recently published analysis of the Criminal Procedure (Identification) Rules, 2022, notified in September 2022.  Also, check out PRS analysis of:

In the past few months, retail prices of petrol and diesel have consistently increased to all-time high levels.  On October 16, 2021, the retail price of petrol in Delhi was Rs 105.5 per litre, and that of diesel was Rs 94.2 per litre.  In Mumbai, these prices were even higher at Rs 111.7 per litre and Rs 102.5 per litre, respectively.

The difference in fuel retail prices in the two cities is due to the different tax rates levied by the respective state governments on the same products.  In this blog post, we look at the tax components in the price structure of petrol and diesel, the variation in these across states, and the major changes in taxation of these products in the recent years.  We also discuss changes in the retail prices over the past few years and how it compares vis-à-vis the global crude oil prices.

Taxes make up around 50% of the retail price

Public sector Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) revise the retail prices of petrol and diesel in India on a daily basis, according to changes in the price of global crude oil.  The price charged to dealers includes the base price set by OMCs and the freight price.   As on October 16, 2021, the price charged to dealers makes up 42% of the retail price in the case of petrol, and 49% of the retail price in the case of diesel (Table 1).

The break-up of retail prices of petrol and diesel in Delhi (as on October 16, 2021), shows that around 54% of the retail price of petrol comprises central and states taxes.  In the case of diesel, this is close to 49%.  The central government taxes the production of petroleum products, while states tax their sale.  The central government levies an excise duty of Rs 32.9 per litre on petrol and Rs 31.8 per litre on diesel.  These make up 31% and 34% of the current retail prices of petrol and diesel, respectively.

Table 1: Break-up of petrol and diesel retail prices in Delhi (as on October 16, 2021)

Component

Petrol

Diesel

Rs/litre

% of retail price

Rs/litre

% of retail price

Price Charged to Dealers

44.4

42%

46.0

49%

Excise Duty (levied by centre)

32.9

31%

31.8

34%

Dealer Commission (average)

3.9

4%

2.6

3%

Sales Tax/ VAT (levied by state)

24.3

23%

13.8

15%

Retail Price

105.5

100%

94.2

100%

Note: Delhi levies 30% VAT on petrol and 16.75% VAT on diesel. 
Sources: Indian Oil Corporation Limited; PRS.

While excise duty rates are uniform across the country, states levy sales tax/ Value Added Tax (VAT) which varies across states.  For instance, Odisha levies 32% VAT on petrol, while Uttar Pradesh levies 26.8% VAT or Rs 18.74 per litre, whichever is higher.   Refer to the table 3 in annexure for sales taxes/VAT levied across the country.  The figure below shows the different tax rates levied by states on petrol and diesel.  In addition to the tax rates shown in the graph, many state governments, such as Tamil Nadu, also levy certain additional levies such as cess (Rs 11.5 per litre).

Figure 1: Sales tax/VAT rates levied by states on petrol and diesel (as on October 1, 2021)

image

Note: The rates shown for Maharashtra are averages of the rates levied in the Mumbai-Thane region and in the rest of the state. Only percentages are being shown in this graph. 
Sources: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; PRS.

Note that unlike excise duty, sales tax is an ad valorem tax, i.e., it does not have a fixed value, and is charged as a percentage of the price of the product.  This implies that while the value of excise duty component of the price structure is fixed, the value of the sales tax component is dependent on the other three components, i.e., price charged to dealers, dealer commission, and excise duty.

Retail prices in India compared to global crude oil price

India’s dependence on imports for consumption of petroleum products has increased over the years.  For instance, in 1998-99, net imports of petroleum products were 69% of the total consumption, which increased to around 95% in 2020-21.  Because of a large share of imports in the domestic consumption, any change in the global price of crude oil has a significant impact on the domestic prices of petroleum products.  The two figures below show the trend in the price of global crude oil and retail prices of petrol and diesel in India, over the last nine years.

Figure 2: Trend of the global crude oil price vis-à-vis retail prices of petrol and diesel (in Delhi)

image

image

Note: Global Crude Oil Price is for the Indian basket.   Petrol and diesel retail prices are for Delhi.  Figures reflect average monthly price.
Sources: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; PRS.

Between June 2014 and October 2018, the retail selling prices did not adhere to change in global crude oil prices.  The global prices fell sharply between June 2014 and January 2016, and then subsequently increased between February 2016 and October 2018.  However, the retail selling prices remained stable during the entire period.  This disparity in the change in global and Indian retail prices was because of the subsequent changes in taxes.  For instance, central taxes were increased by Rs 11 and 13 between June 2014 and January 2016 on petrol and diesel respectively.  Subsequently, taxes were decreased by four rupees between February 2016 and October 2018 for petrol and diesel.  Similarly, during January-April 2020, following a sharp decline of 69% in the global crude oil prices, the central government increased the excise duty on petrol and diesel by Rs 10 per litre and Rs 13 per litre, respectively in May 2020. 

Sharp increase in excise duty collections

As a result of the increase in excise duty in May 2020, the excise duty collection increased sharply from Rs 2.38 lakh crore in 2019-20 to Rs 3.84 lakh crore in 2020-21.  The year-on-year growth rate of excise duty collection increased from 4% in 2019-20 to 67% in 2020-21.  However, sales tax collections (from petroleum products) during that period remained more or less constant (Figure 3).  

Figure 3: Excise duty and sales tax/ VAT collection from petroleum products (in Rs lakh crore) 

image

Note: The excise duty component in the figure includes cess on crude oil.
Sources: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; PRS.

Share of states in excise duty has decreased over the years

Though central taxes (such as excise duty) are levied by the centre, it has only 59% of the revenue from these taxes.  The remaining 41% of the revenue is required to be devolved to the state governments as per the recommendations of the 15th Finance Commission.  These devolved taxes are un-tied in nature, states can spend them according to their own discretion.  The excise duty levied on petrol and diesel consists of two broad components: (i) tax component (i.e., basic excise duty), and (ii) cess and surcharge component.  Of this, only the revenue generated from the tax component is devolved to states.  Revenue generated by the centre from any cess or surcharge is not devolved to states.  Currently, the Agriculture Infrastructure and Development Cess, and the Road and Infrastructure Cess are levied on the sale of petrol and diesel in addition to the surcharge.  

In the Union Budget 2021-22, the Agriculture Infrastructure and Development cess on petrol and diesel was announced at Rs 2.5 per litre and Rs 4 per litre, respectively.  However, simultaneously, the basic excise duty and surcharge were reduced by equal amounts, so that the overall rate remains the same.  Essentially, this provision shifted a revenue of Rs 1.5 per litre of petrol and Rs 3 per litre of diesel from the states’ divisible pool of taxes to the cess and surcharge revenue, which is entirely with the centre.  Similarly, over the last four years, the share of tax component in the excise duty has decreased by 40% in petrol and 59% in diesel (table 2).  At present, majority of the excise duty levied on petrol (96%) and diesel (94%) is in the form of cess and surcharge, due to which it is entirely under the centre’s share (Table 2).  

Table 2: Break up of excise duty (Rs per litre)

Excise duty

Petrol

Diesel

Apr-17

% share of total

Feb-21

% share

Apr-17

% share of total

Feb-21

% share

Tax (devolved to states)

9.48

44%

1.4

4%

11.33

65%

1.8

6%

Cess and surcharge (centre)

12

56%

31.5

96%

6

35%

30

94%

Total

21.48

100%

32.9

100%

17.33

100%

31.8

100%

Sources: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; PRS

As a result, the devolution to states out of the excise duty has declined over the last four years.   Even though the excise duty collections have increased sharply between 2019-20 and 2020-21, the devolved component has declined from Rs 26,464 to Rs 19,578 (revised estimate) in the same period.    

Annexure

Table 3: Sales taxes/VAT rates levied on petrol and diesel across states (as on October 1, 2021)

State/UT

Petrol

Diesel

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

6%

6%

Andhra Pradesh

31% VAT + Rs.4/litre VAT+Rs.1/litre Road Development Cess an

d Vat thereon

22.25% VAT + Rs.4/litre VAT+Rs.1/litre Road Development Cess and Vat thereon

Arunachal Pradesh

20%

13%

Assam

32.66% or Rs.22.63 per litre whichever is higher as VAT minus Rebate of Rs.5 per Litre

23.66% or Rs.17.45 per litre whichever is higher as VAT minus Rebate of Rs.5 per Litre

Bihar

26% or Rs 16.65/Litre whichever is higher (30% Surcharge on VAT as irrecoverable tax)

19% or Rs 12.33/Litre whichever is higher (30% Surcharge on VAT as irrecoverable tax)

Chandigarh

Rs.10/KL cess +22.45% or Rs.12.58/Litre whichever is higher

Rs.10/KL cess + 14.02% or Rs.7.63/Litre whichever is higher

Chhattisgarh

25% VAT + Rs.2/litre VAT

25% VAT + Rs.1/litre VAT

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

20% VAT

20% VAT

Delhi

30% VAT

Rs.250/KL air ambience charges + 16.75% VAT

Goa

27% VAT + 0.5% Green cess

23% VAT + 0.5% Green cess

Gujarat

20.1% VAT+ 4% Cess on Town Rate & VAT

20.2% VAT + 4 % Cess on Town Rate & VAT

Haryana

25% or Rs.15.62/litre whichever is higher as VAT+5% additional tax on VAT

16.40% VAT or Rs.10.08/litre whichever is higher as VAT+5% additional tax on VAT

Himachal Pradesh

25% or Rs 15.50/Litre- whichever is higher

14% or Rs 9.00/Litre- whichever is higher

Jammu & Kashmir

24% MST+ Rs.5/Litre employment cess, Reduction of Rs.0.50/Litre

16% MST+ Rs.1.50/Litre employment cess 

Jharkhand

22% on the sale price or Rs. 17.00 per litre , which ever is higher + Cess of Rs 1.00 per Ltr

22% on the sale price or Rs. 12.50 per litre , which ever is higher + Cess of Rs 1.00 per Ltr

Karnataka

35% sales tax

24% sales tax

Kerala

30.08% sales tax+ Rs.1/litre additional sales tax + 1% cess 

22.76% sales tax+ Rs.1/litre additional sales tax + 1% cess 

Ladakh

24% MST+ Rs.5/Litre employment cess, Reduction of Rs.2.5/Litre

16% MST+ Rs.1/Litre employment cess , Reduction of Rs.0.50/Litre

Lakshadweep

Nil

Nil

Madhya Pradesh

33 % VAT + Rs.4.5/litre VAT+1%Cess

23% VAT+ Rs.3/litre VAT+1% Cess

Maharashtra – Mumbai, Thane , Navi Mumbai,  Amravati & Aurangabad

26% VAT+ Rs.10.12/Litre additional tax 

24% VAT+ Rs.3.00/Litre additional tax 

Maharashtra (Rest of State)

25% VAT+ Rs.10.12/Litre additional tax 

21% VAT+ Rs.3.00/Litre additional tax 

Manipur

32% VAT

18% VAT

Meghalaya

20% or Rs15.00/Litre- whichever is higher (Rs.0.10/Litre pollution surcharge) 

12% or Rs9.00/Litre- whichever is higher (Rs.0.10/Litre pollution surcharge) 

Mizoram

25% VAT

14.5% VAT

Nagaland

25% VAT or Rs. 16.04/litre whichever is higher +5% surcharge + Rs.2.00/Litre as road maintenance cess 

16.50% VAT or Rs. 10.51/litre whichever is higher +5% surcharge + Rs.2.00/Litre as road maintenance cess 

Odisha

32% VAT

28% VAT

Puducherry

23% VAT

17.75% VAT

Punjab

Rs.2050/KL (cess)+ Rs.0.10 per Litre (Urban Transport Fund) + 0.25 per Litre (Special Infrastructure Development Fee)+24.79% VAT+10% additional tax on VAT

Rs.1050/KL (cess) + Rs.0.10 per Litre (Urban Transport Fund) +0.25 per Litre (Special Infrastructure Development Fee) + 15.94% VAT+10% additional tax on VAT

Rajasthan

36% VAT+Rs 1500/KL road development cess

26% VAT+ Rs.1750/KL road development cess

Sikkim

25.25% VAT+ Rs.3000/KL cess 

14.75% VAT + Rs.2500/KL cess 

Tamil Nadu

13% + Rs.11.52 per litre

11%  + Rs.9.62 per litre

Telangana

35.20% VAT

27% VAT

Tripura

25% VAT+ 3% Tripura Road Development Cess

16.50% VAT+ 3% Tripura Road Development Cess

Uttar Pradesh

26.80% or Rs 18.74/Litre whichever is higher

17.48% or Rs 10.41/Litre whichever is higher

Uttarakhand

25% or Rs 19 Per Ltr whichever is greater

17.48% or Rs Rs 10.41 Per Ltr whichever is greater

West Bengal

25% or Rs.13.12/litre whichever is higher as sales tax+ Rs.1000/KL cess – Rs 1000/KL sales tax rebate (20% Additional tax on VAT as irrecoverable tax)

17% or Rs.7.70/litre whichever is higher as sales tax + Rs 1000/KL cess – Rs 1000/KL sales tax rebate (20% Additional tax on VAT as irrecoverable tax)

Sources: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas; PRS.