Highlights Jal Jeevan Mission allocated Rs 67,670 crore in 2026-27, almost four times the revised estimate for 2025-26.  So far, no funds have been released to states under the scheme in 2025-26. Underutilisation of funds seen in schemes like Swachh Bharat Mission - Gramin, Namami Gange, and PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana. About 75% of districts are water stressed/water scarce.  Surface and groundwater pollution persists, despite improvements in recent years.

The Ministry of Jal Shakti is responsible for the development and maintenance of water resources in India.[1]  It is also responsible for ensuring drinking water supply and sanitation in rural India.¹

The Ministry has two Departments – the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS) and the Department of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation (DoWR).¹  DDWS is responsible for providing drinking water and sanitation facilities to rural India.[2]  DoWR is responsible for setting policies for the conservation and management of water resources.  It is also responsible for monitoring water resources, tackling water pollution, and addressing inter-state and transboundary water issues.[3]

This note analyses the expenditure by the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the implementation of key schemes.  It also discusses some important issues related to water resources and their governance in India. 

Overview of Finances

In 2026-27, the Ministry of Jal Shakti has been allocated Rs 94,808 crore, 5% lower than the budget allocation in 2025-26 (Rs 99,503 crore).  Since 2017-18, the majority of the Ministry’s budget has been allocated towards the DDWS, which implements the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) and the Swachh Bharat Mission - Grameen (SBM-G).  However, in 2025-26, the revised estimate for spending on JJM is 75% less than the budget estimate.  Spending on other key schemes has also been less at the revised stage in 2025-26, such as SBM-G (50% less than budget estimate), Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (20% less), and the river interlinking programme (25% less).  This has caused the revised estimate for the Ministry’s expenditure to be 58% less than the budget estimate.

Table 1:  Budget allocation to the Ministry of Jal Shakti (in Rs crore)

Department	2024-25 Actual	2025-26 RE	2026-27 BE	% change from 25-26 RE to 26-27 BE
Drinking Water and Sanitation	25,853	23,031	74,895	225%
Of which,
JJM	22,615	17,000	67,670	298%
SBM-G	3,613	6,000	7,192	20%*
Water Resources	20,867	18,406	19,913	8%
Of which,
PMKSY	6,501	6,922	7,137	3%
Namami Gange	2,976	2,687	3,100	15%
River Interlinking	1,955	1,808	1,906	5%
ABY	594	613	0.13	-100%
Total	46,720	41,437	94,808	129%

Note: BE is budget estimate and RE is revised estimate. 
Source: Demands for Grants 2026-27, Ministry of Jal Shakti; PRS.

Despite lower revised estimates of expenditure, the 2026-27 budget allocation for most schemes implemented by the Ministry is similar to the 2025-26 budget estimates.    

Key Schemes

As of 2022, in India, 90% of water was used for irrigation, 7% for domestic purposes, and the rest for industrial use.[4]  Domestic use include water for drinking, cooking, washing, and sanitation.  The Ministry of Jal Shakti implements several schemes to provide sufficient water to meet these requirements.

Jal Jeevan Mission

The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), launched in 2019, aims to provide every rural household a functional tap connection (FHTC).[5]  Initially implemented for the period from 2019-24, the scheme has been extended till December 2028.[6]  Since 2021-22, allocation towards JJM has accounted for around 70% of the Ministry’s total budget every year.

JJM has been allocated Rs 67,670 crore in 2026-27, 1% more than the budget estimate for 2025-26.  In 2026-27, it is the second largest centrally sponsored scheme after the rural employment guarantee scheme.  In 2025-26, the revised estimate for spending on the scheme (Rs 17,000 crore) is 75% less than the budget allocation (Rs 67,000 crore).  This is the lowest expenditure on the scheme in any year since 2020-21.  As per the Union Budget 2026-27, this can be explained by a lower requirement for grants-in-aid to state governments.[7]  Actual expenditure was 68% less than budgeted in 2024-25.

Figure 1: Revised estimates of spending on JJM 75% lower than budgeted in 2025-26

Note: Revised estimate taken as actuals for 2025-26.
Source: Demands for grants of various years, Ministry of Jal Shakti; PRS.

Cost overruns under the scheme

JJM is being implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme, where funding for projects is shared between the centre and the states/Union Territories (UTs).[8]  It was launched with a total (centre and states) outlay of Rs 3.06 lakh crore.⁸  It was estimated that the central government would spend Rs 2.09 lakh crore on the scheme, with all rural households provided an FHTC by March 2024.⁸  This expenditure was estimated to increase from 2019-2022 and decrease thereafter (see Figure 2).  However, as of January 2025, the central government has allocated Rs 4.3 lakh crore for the scheme, and spent Rs 2.06 lakh crore.[9]  During this time, 81% of rural households have FHTCs, against the target of 100%.[10] 

Figure 2: Central outlay towards JJM was expected to taper down after 2024

Source: JJM Operational Guidelines, JJM Dashboard; PRS.

In 2020, the average cost per household under JJM was estimated to be at most Rs 47,000 (excluding a sub-scheme to provide solar-based water supply in isolated/tribal hamlets).⁸  However, since 2023-24, the average cost of providing an FHTC to a household has crossed Rs 50,000.^9,10 

States have cited several reasons for delays in project implementation.[11]  These include: (i) lack of dependable drinking water sources, (ii) geogenic contaminants in ground water, (iii) uneven geographical terrain, and (iv) poor technical capacity.  States also observed increased raw material costs due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine crisis.[12]  They requested additional central support to meet these costs.  In June 2022, the operational guidelines were amended for this purpose.¹²  The amendment removed tender premium from the list of inadmissible expenses.[13]  It also provided for additional approvals if the cost discovered through a tender process exceeded the estimated project cost.¹³

No central release under the scheme in 2025-26

The JJM scheme was extended till 2028 under the Union Budget 2025-26.⁶  However, no guidelines have been published for the extension of the scheme.  As of February 3, 2026, the JJM information management system shows that no funds were allocated towards, or released to states in 2025-26 (see Table 2).⁹  On February 2, 2026, the Ministry clarified in Rajya Sabha that no funds were allocated to states/UTs in 2025-26.[14]  Rs 232 crore of central funds was spent during this time, drawn from unutilised funds released in previous years.⁹ 

Table 2: No central allocation or release to states under JJM in 2025-26

Year	Central Allocation	Central Release
2019-20	11,139	9,952
2020-21	23,033	10,918
2021-22	92,309	40,010
2022-23	1,00,790	54,742
2023-24	1,32,937	69,885
2024-25	69,927	22,540
2025-26	0	0

Source: JJM Dashboard; PRS.

Figure 3: State expenditure higher than central expenditure in 2024-25 and 2025-26

Source: JJM Dashboard; PRS.

The Ministry has stated that central grants to eligible states will be released only after the Union Cabinet’s approval of the scheme extension and publication of guidelines.⁶  As per the JJM mandate, central financial support to states would be provided until March 2024.⁶  States would have to bear the financial liability for schemes approved beyond March 2024.⁶  In line with this, state expenditure on the scheme has exceeded central expenditure since 2024-25. 

Irregularities in scheme implementation

The Ministry of Jal Shakti noted that more than 17,000 complaints have been received by states/UTs regarding financial irregularities and poor quality of work under JJM.[15]  As of July 2025, 140 districts were visited by officers, to conduct ground inspection of JJM projects.¹²  Action has been taken against departmental officials found guilty of wrongdoing, including inquiries, disciplinary action, lodging of FIRs, and suspension.¹⁵ 

Penalties have also been imposed and recovered.[16]  As of December 2025, six states reported imposing penalties worth Rs 129 crore.¹⁶  Out of this, 9%  has been recovered (Rs 12 crore).  This includes Rs 7 crore from Gujarat, Rs 4 crore from Rajasthan, and one crore rupees from Tripura.  In addition, Rs 340 crore was recovered from contractors as liquidated damages (pre-determined compensation in case of breach of contract) in Uttar Pradesh.¹⁶

Functionality of FHTCs

In a 2024 assessment of JJM villages, it was found that tap water connections were working in 87% of households.[17]  However, tap connections were fully functional in 76% of households.¹⁷  This means that the: (i) household received at least 55 litres of water per person per day, (ii) water was supplied as per a pre-defined schedule, and (iii) water was free from contamination and met quality standards.  Pump failures, damaged pipelines, and electricity issues were the most common reasons for tap connections not functioning.¹⁷  The survey also noted that while user satisfaction was high (more than 80%), microbiological contamination of water was found in some areas.¹⁷  See Table 9 for state-wise figures.

Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen)

The Swachh Bharat Mission – Grameen (SBM-G) was launched in 2014, with the aim of ending open defecation (ODF).[18]^,24  In this phase (Phase-I), the focus was to provide all rural households access to toilets.  Phase-II of the scheme was launched in 2020, to be implemented till 2024-25.[19]  It aims to make all villages ODF Plus Model villages.²⁴  This involves three progressive stages (see Table 3).[20]  In this phase, toilets will be built to cover newly emerging households, and those left uncovered in the previous phase.²⁴

SBM-G has been allocated Rs 7,192 crore in 2026-27.  The budget allocation for this scheme has remained the same in every year since 2022-23.  Actual expenditure on the scheme has been less than the budget allocation in every year since 2018-19.  In 2024-25, actual expenditure was Rs 3,613 crore, 50% less than the budget estimate.  As per revised estimates, Rs 6,000 crore (17% less than budgeted) is expected to be spent on SBM-G in 2025-26.

Table 3: Stages of ODF Plus status

Type	Requirements for the village
ODF Plus Aspiring	Sustains ODF status and arranges for solid or liquid waste management
ODF Plus Rising	Sustains ODF status and arranges for solid and liquid waste management
ODF Plus Model	Sustains ODF status, arranges for solid and liquid waste management, observes visual cleanliness, and displays ODF Plus messages

Source: PIB; PRS.

Target achievement under SBM-G

By 2019, all villages in the country had declared themselves ODF-free.¹⁸  However, the National Family Health Survey-5 recorded that 26% of rural households practised open defection (between 2019 and 2021).[21]  As of January 2026, more than 12 crore household toilets have been built under SBM-G.[22] 

Figure 4: Funds underutilised in SBM-G Phase II

Note: Revised estimate taken as actual for 2025-26.
Source: Union Budget documents; PRS.

5.86 lakh villages are covered under SBM-G.²²  Arrangements for solid waste management have been made in 90% of villages, and for liquid waste management in 93% of villages.²²  These include compost pits, community soak pits, sewers, closed drains, faecal sludge management systems, etc.[23]  Along with individual household latrines, creation of community assets is also prioritised under SBM-G.²³ 

Table 4: Community assets created under SBM-G

Asset	Number created (as of January 2026)
Sanitary Complexes	2,68,375
Compost Pits	12,24,872
Soak/leach/magic pits	23,12,141
Drainage facilities	14,43,325
Biogas plants (functional)	1,116
Faecal Sludge Management Plant	2,303
Plastic Waste Management Unit	2,297

Source: SBM-G Dashboard, accessed on January 8, 2026; PRS.

Once physical criteria are met, a village can declare itself ODF Plus at a Gram Sabha meeting.²³  Following this declaration, the district administration must complete its third-party verification within 90 days.²³  Subsequently, ODF Plus verification must be completed for the village annually.²³  As of January 2026, 97% of these villages were ODF Plus, and 84% were ODF Plus Model villages.²²  The first verification of Model status has been completed in 72% of villages, and the second verification in 29%.²²

Slow release of funds

SBM-G is a centrally sponsored scheme, with the central and state governments contributing funds.[24]  Additionally, funds are also expected to be obtained from Finance Commission grants, and revenue generation models (especially for waste management).²⁴  Between 2014-15 and 2024-25, Rs 86,534 crore has been released by the centre to states.[25]  The scheme was extended to 2025-26, to be financed by balance savings under the given outlay.[26]  In 2023-24, seven states/UTs including Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, and Kerala did not receive any funds.²⁵  In 2024-25, this list included Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Meghalaya.²⁵ 

In May 2024, SNA-SPARSH, a new system for just-in-time release of funds to states was launched.[27]  States were required to create infrastructure and train scheme implementing agencies to use this system.  During this time, fund release under the previous route (through Single Nodal Accounts of states) was also stopped.²⁷  All states/UTs were required to move to the SPARSH platform before April 1, 2025.[28]  Only thirteen states had shifted to SPARSH as of February 2025.²⁷  The Ministry cited delays in states adopting the new platform as a reason for delays in fund release to eligible states.²⁷  Lack of familiarity with the new system also led to low expenditure in those states which had shifted to SPARSH.²⁷  

Figure 5: RLB grants released to states decreased in 2024-25 and 2025-26

Note: Data for 2025-26 is as of December 2, 2025.
Source: Unstarred Question No. 1440, Lok Sabha, December 9, 2025; PRS.

Under SBM-G, states are expected to utilise Finance Commission grants for rural local bodies (RLBs) as an additional source of funds.²³  Out of the cost for village-level solid and liquid waste management activities, and Community Sanitary Complexes, 30% is expected to be funded through this route.²³  However, states have faced difficulties in accessing RLB grants.  This could be due to an inability to meet conditions attached to some grants, such as making audited accounts of local bodies available online.

The SBM-G guidelines also require the state government to provide an undertaking that funds earmarked for sanitation activities are being devolved to RLBs.²³  Fund release from the centre is contingent on this undertaking.²³

Financial assistance to build toilets needs revision

Under SBM-G, financial assistance of Rs 12,000 is given to households to build toilets.²³  The Standing Committee on Water Resources has, on multiple occasions, noted that this amount is insufficient. This cost was fixed based on a 2014 assessment, completed prior to the initial implementation of SBM-G.²⁶  The Committee (2025) has noted that the cost of construction materials and other inputs have increased substantially since 2014.²⁶  It recommended increasing the quantum of this incentive.²⁶ 

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana

As of 2022-23, it is estimated that 56% of the net sown area in India is under irrigation.[29]  The remaining agricultural land depends on rainfall for water.  However, changes have been observed in rainfall patterns across the country.[30]  About two-thirds of agricultural land is also drought-prone.[31]  These factors enhance the need for irrigation, to ensure that sufficient water is available for farming. PMKSY was launched to increase the proportion of cultivable land under irrigation and improve water-use efficiency on farms.[32]  Its second phase is being implemented from 2021-22 to 2025-26.  Out of the four major components of the scheme, two are being implemented by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.  These are the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), and Har Khet Ko Pani (HKKP).  AIBP (launched in 1996-97 and brought under PMKSY in 2016) focuses on the completion of major and medium irrigation projects.[33]  HKKP focuses on minor irrigation and water body restoration.³³

Figure 6: Budget allocation towards PMKSY has increased since 2016-17, but utilisation has fallen short (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimate taken as actuals for 2025-26.  The flood management programme, irrigation census, and special package for Maharashtra have been separated from PMKSY in the budget documents from 2025-26.  To maintain consistency with older data, actual expenditure for 2023-24, and all figures from 2024-25 have been adjusted to include these programmes.  Excluding them, PMKSY has been allocated Rs. 7,137 crore for 2026-27.
Source: Budget documents of various years; PRS.

A total of Rs 59,344 crore has been allocated towards PMKSY between 2016-17 and 2025-26.  Actual expenditure has been estimated to be 87% of this amount.  Since 2023-24, expenditure on the scheme has been above 80% of the budget estimate.   

PMKSY is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.  Central assistance of Rs 28,743 crore has been released to states as of August 2025 (from 2016-17).[34]

Unmet targets under AIBP and HKKP

Between 2016-17 and 2023-24, 1.2 crore hectare of irrigation potential has been created under AIBP.²⁹  Irrigation potential refers to land that can be irrigated using available water resources.  This is 78% of the AIBP’s target for irrigation potential (1.5 crore hectare).²⁹  As of March 2025, 61% of projects under AIBP have been completed (66 out of 108).³⁴

There are two major sub-components under HKKP –Surface Minor Irrigation (SMI) and Repair, Renovation, and Restoration of Water Bodies (RRR).[35]  Under SMI, 3,160 out of 7,304 projects (43%) have been completed as of November 2024.³³  1,661 out of 3,075 projects (54%) have been completed under RRR.³³  These projects have created 5.6 lakh hectare of irrigation potential, against a target of 14 lakh hectare.

Figure 7: Irrigation potential created under AIBP decreased after 2017-18

Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance-2024; PRS.

Land acquisition has been highlighted as a major obstacle to the implementation of irrigation projects.[36]  A CAG audit of AIBP found delays between one and 18 years.[37]  Delays in obtaining statutory clearance and changes in the scope of work are other issues that have been identified.³⁷  These delays lead to cost overruns and leave targets unrealised.

Figure 8: Less than 50% target achievement under HKKP sub-components between 2015 and 2024

Source: Annual Report 2024-25, Department of Water Resources; PRS.

In April 2025, the Union Cabinet approved the Modernisation of the Command Area Development and Water Management (M-CADWM) programme for one year, 2025-26.[38]  It aims to modernise the irrigation network, and improve micro-irrigation infrastructure.[39]  It also aims to increase water use efficiency at the farm level.  About 70,000 hectare is expected to be covered under the scheme.  As of December 1, 2025, Rs 44 crore has been released to states under the scheme, against an allocation of Rs 883 crore (5%).[40]

Rehabilitation of dams As of 2023, India had more than 6,000 large dams.  The operation, maintenance and safety of dams is the responsibility of dam owners and states.  Under the Dam Safety Act, 2021, all states are required to set up Dam Safety Committees and Dam Safety Organisations (DSO).  As of December 2025, all states have set up these mechanisms.  However, the CWC has noted a lack of uniformity in the functions or administration of DSOs.  In most cases, they play an advisory role with few opportunities for proactive intervention in dam rehabilitation. Since 2012, the Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project has been implemented to improve the safety and operational performance of selected dams.  As of November 2025, Rs 1,931 crore has been spent on Phase II of the scheme (2021-2026), against a sanctioned outlay of Rs 5,107 crore.  Major rehabilitation work has been completed at 31 dams. Source: National Dam Safety Authority; CWC; Unstarred Question No. 3084, Lok Sabha, December 18, 2025; PRS.

Availability and Quality of Water

India receives water from rivers, groundwater, and precipitation (rainfall and snowfall).[41]  61% of utilisable water is from surface water sources, and 39% from groundwater.  The CWC has observed that while India is not a water-deficit country, severe neglect and lack of water resource monitoring have led some regions to experience persistent water stress.[42]  In 2011, the per capita availability of water in India fell below 1,700 cubic metres, indicating a water-stress condition.   

However, the level of water stress is not uniform across India.  As per CWC estimates, 59% of districts (out of 727) are facing water scarcity in 2025, and 3% are facing absolute scarcity.[43]  In 2050, 57% of districts are expected to face water scarcity, and 7% to face absolute scarcity. 

Figure 9: Per capita water availability

Source: Central Water Commission; PRS

Table 5: Projected per capita water availability (number of districts)

Condition	2025	2050
No Stress (>1700 m3)	181	181
Stress (1000−1700 m3)	95	86
Scarcity (500−1000 m3)	430	411
Absolute scarcity (<500 m3)	21	49

Source: India Climate and Energy Dashboard, NITI Aayog, accessed on January 4, 2026; PRS.

Groundwater stress

It has been estimated that 406 billion cubic metres of groundwater can be extracted annually in India.[44]  As of 2025, the average groundwater extraction was 61%.⁴⁴  This figure was 32% in 1995.⁴⁴ 

Figure 10: Almost 90% of extracted groundwater is used for irrigation

Source: Central Ground Water Board, data for 2024-25; PRS.

The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2023) noted that increased water demand, changes in rainfall patterns, and decentralised availability has led to a growing dependence on groundwater.[45]  Consequently, there has been a severe depletion of groundwater reserves.  In 2025, 11% of units were assessed to be over-exploited.⁴⁴  In three states, Delhi, Haryana, and Punjab, the stage of groundwater extraction crossed 100% (see Figure 11).  This indicates that groundwater extraction in these blocks/taluks/mandals/states was higher than the annual recharge. 

Water Use Efficiency

As about 90% of water is used for irrigation in India, an examination of water use in agriculture becomes important.  Agricultural practices in India are water inefficient.⁴⁵  The water requirement to cultivate rice in India is 1,000-1,200 mm, as opposed to 550-650 mm in other Asian countries, like China and Vietnam.⁴⁵  Similarly, sugarcane requires 1,800-2,400 mm in India, and 1,059-1,640 mm in Brazil.⁴⁵ 

The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2023) noted several policies that caused over-extraction and wastage of water.⁴⁵  These include free electricity supply for agricultural use, assured government procurement of crops, and fertiliser subsidies.⁴⁵  These policies incentivised the cultivation of water-intensive crops, such as rice and sugarcane, even in water-stressed parts of the country.⁴⁵

Figure 11: Stage of groundwater extraction in states (as of 2025)

Note: Map created using Datawrapper.
Source: Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, Central Ground Water Board; PRS.

Water Pollution

River pollution: The Central Pollution Control Board monitors and assesses the quality of river stretches across the country.[46]  River stretches are classified into different priorities (I to V) based on the biological oxygen demand (BOD).  The required standard for BOD is more than 3 mg/litre.  In 2022-23, 804 out of 2,116 (38%) assessed river stretches (locations in a continuous sequence) were found to be polluted based on this criterion.⁴⁶  In 2019-21, 817 out of 1,920 monitored river locations did not meet this criterion.[47]

Table 6: Pollutants in river locations (2023)

Criterion (based on Primary Water Quality Criteria)	% of locations that did not meet the criteria
Dissolved Oxygen (> 5 mg)	26%
pH (between 6.5 and 8.5)	17%
BOD (< 3 mg/litre)	39%
Faecal Coliform (< 2,500)	23%

Source: Water Quality of Rivers 2023, National Water Quality Monitoring Programme, Central Pollution Control Board; PRS.

Groundwater contamination: Arsenic, fluoride, nitrates, uranium, manganese, and other heavy metals have been found in groundwater in India.[48]  The Central Ground Water Board reported that in 2025, nitrate pollution was most widespread, followed by fluoride and high salinity.[49]  While the report noted a decrease in the number of districts affected by pollutants like iron, arsenic, and uranium, no reasons for this decline were provided.⁴⁹  Groundwater contamination largely results from natural geological processes, and does not significantly change over the years.[50]  However, pollution caused by nitrates, phosphates, and other pollutants are due to human activity.  These can be caused by excessive use of fertilisers, and domestic wastewater discharge.[51]  Industries, sewage disposal, and landfills also pollute groundwater.[52]  Over-extraction also causes increased salinity and electrical conductivity in aquifers, and may increase the presence of contaminants like fluoride and uranium.[53] 

Table 7: Districts and states affected by the presence of contaminants in groundwater

Contaminant	2024		2025
	Districts	States	Districts	States
Nitrate	443	23	506	26
Fluoride	263	20	261	24
Iron	356	25	173	20
Arsenic	118	20	47	10
Uranium	132	13	27	5

Source: Annual Ground Water Quality Report, 2024 and 2025, Central Ground Water Board; PRS.

Sewage Treatment: As of 2021, 72,368 MLD of sewage is generated by urban Indian households.[54]  Existing sewage treatment capacity can treat 44% of generated sewage.  Further, about 15% of the treatment capacity is not operational.⁵⁴  Untreated sewage is released into water bodies, causing contamination.  Several states have set targets for the safe reuse of treated water.  Gujarat has set a target of 100% reuse by 2030.⁵⁴  In Karnataka, Gujarat, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu, industrial zones within a certain range of a sewage treatment plant must use treated water.⁵⁴

Namami Gange

The Namami Gange programme aims to conserve and rejuvenate the Ganga and its tributaries.[55]  Projects under the programme include river surface cleaning, creating sewerage treatment infrastructure, river-front development, industrial effluent monitoring, and public awareness.⁵⁵  It is implemented by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).

Figure 12: Budget allocation for Namami Gange persistently underutilised

Note: Revised estimate taken as actual for 2025-26 and 2014-15.
Source: Budget documents of various years; PRS.

Funds remain underutilised

The Namami Gange scheme was initially approved with a budget outlay of Rs 20,000 crore between 2014 and 2021.⁵⁵  It was later extended for the period from 2021 to 2026, with a budgetary outlay of Rs 22,500 crore.³³  Between 2014-15 and 2025-26, Rs 30,096 crore has been allocated towards this scheme.  Actual expenditure on the scheme during this time was about Rs 18,842 crore (as of March 2025).

Figure 13: Funds disbursed by the NMCG (2014-26) as % of revised estimate

Note: Until 2022-23, unspent amounts from previous years were carried forward and disbursed in later years.
Source: Unstarred Question No. 1688, Rajya Sabha, December 15, 2025; PRS.

Projects under the Namami Gange programme are implemented by various central and state departments, such as the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, State Missions for Clean Ganga, and state forestry departments.^33,[56]  Funds for these projects are disbursed by the NMCG.  From 2014-15 to 2025-26, Rs 20,430 crore has been disbursed by the NMCG, against an estimate of Rs 26,825 crore (76%).⁵⁶ 

Water pollution in the Ganga

As per the Central Pollution Control Board, all assessed locations along the river Ganga meet the notified bathing criteria with respect to pH and dissolved oxygen.⁵⁶  Norms for biochemical oxygen demand have not been met in stretches in Uttar Pradesh, and for faecal coliform in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.⁵⁶  Between 2018 and 2025, the condition of polluted river stretches has improved in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.  Marginal pollution remains in Bihar.⁵⁶  The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) (2024) identified industrial effluents and sewage waste to be the main sources of pollution in the Ganga.[57]  More than 2,700 industries situated on the Ganga are grossly pollution industries.⁵⁷  The PAC (2024) found that more than 450 of these industries did not comply with norms related to the discharge of effluents into the river.⁵⁷

Sewage Treatment Capacity targets not achieved

The National Mission for Clean Ganga targets a sewage treatment capacity of 7,000 million litre per day (MLD) around the Ganga by December 2026.[58]  As of December 2025, 138 sewage infrastructure projects have been completed, with a total capacity of 3,806 MLD.⁵⁶  This accounts for 58% of the targeted capacity.  Identification of suitable land, obtaining statutory clearances, and abnormal floods have been cited as reasons for delays in project completion.[59],,[60]

Issues in project management

The Public Accounts Committee has noted several issues related to the management of projects implemented under Namami Gange.⁵⁷  These include: (i) low utilisation of funds, (ii) delays in submission of utilisation certificates by states, (iii) delays in approving project reports, and (iv) poor record maintenance.⁵⁷  The Committee also noted that while significant funds had been spent on advertising, public engagement was not achieved as desired.  The Committee observed that the work done under the programme was not proportionate to funds released by the NMCG.⁵⁷ 

Atal Bhujal Yojana

Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) aims to improve groundwater management in seven water stressed states through community-led interventions.[61]  It is being implemented for a six-year period (2020-26) with a total outlay of Rs 6,000 crore.[62]  These funds have been allocated towards institutional strengthening, capacity building, and state incentives.  This includes incentives for transparent planning and use of ground water.⁶²

Between 2020 and 2025, 67% of the total outlay (Rs 4,044 crore out of Rs 6,000 crore) has been released to states under ABY.⁶²  Of the total outlay (Rs 3,572 crore), 60% has been utilised by states.⁶²  Across states, expenditure has remained above 70% of released funds.⁶²  As of January 2026, targets have been met in most components, except training and improving the rate of groundwater decline.⁶²  See Table 12 in the Annexure for details on the achievement of targets under ABY.

In 2023, the Standing Committee had recommended that the scheme be expanded to all water stressed areas of the country.[63]  In 2025, the Department of Water Resources indicated that ‘in-principle’ approval was accorded for the expansion of the scheme.⁵⁹  This would cover five additional states, with an outlay of Rs 8,200 crore.⁵⁹  The scheme may also be restructured into a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.⁵⁹  The scheme has been allocated Rs 13 lakh in 2026-27.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan The Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA) was launched in 2019, aiming to improve water availability in water-stressed districts.33  It is implemented during the pre-monsoon and monsoon season (July-November).  It involves the creation of rain water structures, enumeration and geo-tagging of water bodies, preparing scientific plans for water conservation, and afforestation.33  State governments are also required to set up ‘Jal Shakti Kendras’ in every district headquarter.  No separate funding has been provided for this scheme.  It relies on converging funding from other schemes like MGNREGS, PMKSY, and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation.  As of July 2025, 1.8 crore water-related works have been taken up.[64]

River Inter-linking

The National Perspective Plan (1980) identified 30 inter-basin water transfer projects.[65]  These projects aim to link water-deficit river basins with water-surplus basins.  Five of these have been designated as priority projects.[66]  As of December 2025, only one of these projects is under implementation – the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBL).⁶⁶  As of July 2025, Rs 11,380 crore has been spent on the project, of which Rs 8,612 crore was spent by the central government.[67]  The tender for the Daudhan Dam under KBL was awarded in November 2024.  The river interlinking project has been allocated Rs 1,906 crore in 2026-27, 5% higher than the revised estimate for 2025-26.  In 2025-26, 75% of the budget allocation (Rs 2,400 crore) is estimated to have been utilised.  This figure was 57% in 2024-25, and 40% in 2023-24.     

River inter-linking projects are expected to increase India’s irrigation potential by 35 million hectare, and generate an additional 34,000 MW of hydropower.[68]  Other incidental benefits include flood control, navigation, improved water supply, fisheries, etc.⁶⁸  However, environmental impact assessments of these projects have raised certain concerns.[69]  For instance, the assessment of the Ken-Betwa link noted adverse impacts on local biodiversity, forest cover, land submergence, and changes in river characteristics.⁶⁹  Mitigation measures such as afforestation, erosion control, pollution control, and habitat improvement have been recommended.⁶⁹ 

Another key challenge in inter-linking projects is building state consensus.⁶⁶  States have raised concerns about the allocation of water following inter-state projects.⁶⁶  This could affect their capacity for irrigation and power generation.⁶⁶ 

Water governance in India

In India, the responsibility of managing water resources is shared across three levels of government.[70]  Local governments are responsible for providing water for domestic and commercial uses, and maintaining community assets.⁷⁰  States are responsible for creating water storage structures, irrigation facilities, and managing water supply.⁷⁰  The central government is responsible for the development of water as a national resource.  It formulates policies for water management.³  Currently, the National Water Policy, 2012 is in effect.³  Given growing challenges such as river pollution, groundwater depletion, and water scarcity, a Committee was constituted to revise the policy in 2019.[71]  However, no new water policy has been adopted yet.

The 2012 policy identified several issues related to water governance.[72]  These include: (i) fragmented implementation of water resource projects, (ii) treatment of groundwater as individual property, and (iii) lack of trained personnel for scientific planning of water management.  It also observed that an inter-disciplinary approach to solving water-related problems was missing.⁷²  The policy established some basic principles for water governance in the country.  It recommended that water be managed as a common pool community resource.⁷²  All elements of the water cycle, including surface water, groundwater, and precipitation are interdependent.⁷²  Water management must be approached with an integrated perspective, with a river basin as the basic unit.⁷² 

National Water Mission: The National Water Mission (NWM) was established under the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008.³³  It aims to promote integrated water resource management across states.³³  The NWM provides grants to states to formulate State Specific Action Plans (SSAP) for the water sector.⁶¹  Rs 50 lakh is being provided to major states, and Rs 30 lakh to minor states.⁶¹  As of December 2025, three states have finalised their plans.⁶¹  Sixteen states have submitted interim reports, and all other states have submitted draft reports.⁶¹  One of the expected outcomes of the SSAP is to formulate annual state water budgets.[73]  This involves calculating all water inputs and offsetting them against water outputs.[74]  This is a critical component of water resource planning, and flood/drought mitigation.  In 2026-27, Rs 243 crore has been allocated towards research and development and implementation of the National Water Mission.

Transboundary River Agreements India and her neighbours have signed several treaties and agreements for mutually beneficial use of water resources.  These treaties also provide for data sharing, establishing hydroelectric projects and advance warning of floods.  Some of these are listed in the table below.  Table 8: Water treaties/agreements signed by India Country Treaty/Agreement Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty, 1960 Nepal Kosi Agreement, 1954, Gandak Agreement, 1959, Mahakali Treaty, 1996 Bangladesh Ganga Water Treaty, 1996 Source: PIB; PRS. However, several issues with these agreements have been observed.  The Standing Committee on External Affairs (2025) noted that while India and Bangladesh share 54 transboundary rivers, agreements have been signed for only three.[75]  Further, discussions on the Ganga Water Treaty, set to expire in 2026, have not yet commenced.75  Memoranda of Understanding signed with China on the Brahmaputra and the Sutlej have expired, and are being renegotiated.33  Due to geo-political tensions between India and Pakistan, India suspended the Indus Water Treaty in May 2025.[76]  The treaty has been held in abeyance since.

Disaster Management

Floods

Floods may be caused by natural factors, such as geography, heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and coastal storms.[77]  Changes in the frequency and intensity of rainfall due to climate change can also cause floods.⁷⁷  Human activities like deforestation, rapid urbanisation, and poor agricultural practises also worsens the severity of floods.⁷⁷  It is estimated that about 15% of India’s land area is flood-prone.[78]^,77  Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Assam are affected by floods in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.⁷⁷  Coastal states like Odisha, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh are also affected.⁷⁷  Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and north-eastern states are prone to cloud burst and subsequent floods.[79]

Currently, there is a two-tier system for flood management in India.[80]  As per the Constitution, flood and erosion management are responsibilities of states.⁸⁰  State water resource departments, technical advisory committees, and flood control boards are part of the state-level mechanism.⁸⁰  The centre provides technical assistance and financial support for flood management.³³  The CWC provides flood forecasting services.³³  As of 2025, CWC operates 340 forecasting stations with 1,121 automatic data collection stations.³³  The National Disaster Management Authority also formulates policies and guidelines for flood response and mitigation.[81] 

In 2022, the Standing Committee on Water Resources noted that the responsibility for flood management was compartmentalised.[82]  It recommended that a National Integrated Flood Management Group be set up.  This body, comprising Union and state ministers, would coordinate between all agencies responsible for flood management.⁸²   

The Flood Management and Border Areas Programme (FMBAP) was launched in 2017-18, and extended up to 2025-26.³³  FMBAP provides central assistance to states to take up works related to flood control, anti-erosion, drainage development, flood proofing, river management, etc.³³  In 2026-27, Rs 797 crore has been allocated towards the scheme, 77% higher than the budget estimate for the previous four years (Rs 450 crore in each year). 

Funds underutilised

The Standing Committee on Water Resources (2025) noted that the budget for FMBAP has been under-utilised in 2023-24 and 2024-25.[83]  It observed that given the impending challenges that floods pose to the country, underutilisation of the budget would undermine FMBAP’s objectives.⁸³ 

Figure 14: Allocation towards FMBAP increased by 77% in 2026-27

Note: Revised estimate taken as actual for 2025-26.
Source: Union Budget documents; PRS.

The Ministry (2025) noted that flood management works are generally taken up after the monsoon period.  As a result, requests for central assistance from states were received later in the financial year.⁸³  Release of funds is also dependent on receiving technically and financially viable proposals from states.  The National Water Policy 2012 recommended that flood preparedness should be emphasised, while taking necessary measures to avert water disasters.⁷²  In 2024-25, only Arunachal Pradesh received funds under FMBAP.³³  In 2023-24, five states received funds, including Manipur (Rs 62 crore), Himachal Pradesh (Rs 30 crore), and Assam (seven crore rupees).³³  Nagaland and Jammu and Kashmir also received Rs 50-80 lakh. 

Figure 15: Funds released to states under FMBAP

Source: Annual Report 2024-25, DoWR; PRS.

The Standing Committee (2025) and the Public Accounts Committee (2024) have observed delays in implementing projects under the scheme.^59,[84]  The Standing Committee noted that 30 projects from 2007-2017 were still ongoing.⁵⁹  The PAC noted delays between 10 months and 13 years due to delays in the approval of project reports.⁸⁴  The PAC also noted that due to these delays, technical designs become obsolete by the time funding is released.      

Glacial Outburst

As glaciers melt, water collects behind moraine dams (accumulations of ice, sand, pebbles, etc.), forming glacial lakes.[85]  When these dams break, water is released downstream, causing floods.  Climate change has led to glacial retreat, and the formation of new glacial lakes.⁸⁵  In 2024-25, 47 dams were found likely to be affected by glacial outburst floods.³³  Between 2009 and 2020, the Central Water Commission found 21 glacial lakes with significant increase in water spread.[86] 

The National Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Risk Mitigation Programme was approved in August 2024, with a total outlay of Rs 150 crore.[87]  It aims to support four states to take up glacial lake outburst flood mitigation efforts.[88]  This includes creating scientific inventories of glacial lakes and installing early warning systems.⁸⁸  Rs 135 crore will be provided through the National Disaster Mitigation Fund, the remaining will be contributed by states.  As of July 2025, Rs 28 crore has been released from the central share.⁸⁸

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Sikkim In 2023, South Lhonak Lake, a glacial lake situated in Sikkim ruptured and caused flash floods.[89]  Continuous rainfall, and an avalanche in the ice-capped feature surrounding the lake caused the floods.  The Teesta river flooded, affecting four districts of Sikkim.89  It also caused the Chungthang Hydro-dam on the river to breach.  The South Lhonak lake has been expanding over the years, due to increased ice-melt.89  This, along with seismic activity in the area, has made the lake susceptible to ruptures.

Annexure

Table 9: Functionality of tap water connections in rural households (2025)  

State/UT	% households with FHTCs	% of surveyed households receiving adequate quantity of water	% of surveyed households with regular supply	% of surveyed households with potable water
A & N Islands	100%	71%	90%	88%
Andhra Pradesh	75%	87%	98%	91%
Arunachal Pradesh	100%	97%	84%	69%
Assam	82%	89%	69%	70%
Bihar	96%	95%	59%	85%
Chhattisgarh	82%	85%	87%	88%
D&NH and D&D	100%	77%	98%	14%
Goa	100%	99%	99%	70%
Gujarat	100%	59%	97%	47%
Haryana	100%	87%	96%	76%
Himachal Pradesh	100%	97%	89%	93%
Jammu & Kashmir	81%	90%	94%	86%
Jharkhand	55%	72%	80%	78%
Karnataka	86%	73%	91%	80%
Kerala	55%	88%	74%	56%
Ladakh	98%	96%	100%	99%
Lakshadweep	91%	46%	58%	41%
Madhya Pradesh	73%	67%	77%	63%
Maharashtra	90%	83%	88%	80%
Manipur	80%	87%	85%	81%
Meghalaya	83%	90%	72%	68%
Mizoram	100%	60%	95%	81%
Nagaland	94%	82%	74%	83%
Odisha	77%	91%	82%	81%
Puducherry	100%	99%	100%	92%
Punjab	100%	97%	93%	79%
Rajasthan	58%	60%	81%	83%
Sikkim	92%	25%	94%	62%
Tamil Nadu	89%	92%	99%	84%
Telangana	100%	83%	99%	85%
Tripura	86%	97%	79%	31%
Uttar Pradesh	91%	94%	72%	66%
Uttarakhand	98%	90%	78%	89%
West Bengal	56%	94%	74%	88%

Note: Adequate quantity of water is defined as at least 55 litres per person per day.  Water supply is regular if it is available as per a predefined schedule.  Potability of water is determined by 11 parameters including hardness, presence of chlorides, nitrates, iron, arsenic, etc.
Source: JJM Dashboard, accessed on December 23, 2025; Functionality Assessment of Household Tap Connections – 2024; PRS.

Table 10: Stage of groundwater extraction in Indian states (as of 2025)

State/UT	Stage of Groundwater Extraction	State/UT	Stage of Groundwater Extraction	State/UT	Stage of Groundwater Extraction
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	2%	Jammu and Kashmir	25%	Odisha	49%
Andhra Pradesh	32%	Jharkhand	33%	Puducherry	76%
Arunachal Pradesh	0.4%	Karnataka	66%	Punjab	156%
Assam	14%	Kerala	50%	Rajasthan	147%
Bihar	46%	Ladakh	31%	Sikkim	6%
Chhattisgarh	48%	Lakshadweep	58%	Tamil Nadu	74%
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	40%	Madhya Pradesh	59%	Telangana	47%
Delhi	92%	Maharashtra	52%	Tripura	10%
Goa	23%	Manipur	9%	Uttar Pradesh	70%
Gujarat	56%	Meghalaya	5%	Uttarakhand	54%
Haryana	137%	Mizoram	4%	West Bengal	45%
Himachal Pradesh	39%	Nagaland	5%

Source: National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India 2025, Central Ground Water Board; PRS.

Table 11: Polluted river stretches in India (2025)

State/UT	Polluted River Stretches	State/UT	Polluted River Stretches	State/UT	Polluted River Stretches
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	0	Jammu and Kashmir	7	Odisha	6
Andhra Pradesh	4	Jharkhand	10	Puducherry	2
Arunachal Pradesh	4	Karnataka	14	Punjab	2
Assam	6	Kerala	32	Rajasthan	8
Bihar	12	Ladakh	0	Sikkim	3
Chhattisgarh	6	Lakshadweep	0	Tamil Nadu	9
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	1	Madhya Pradesh	18	Telangana	5
Delhi	1	Maharashtra	54	Tripura	1
Goa	2	Manipur	18	Uttar Pradesh	16
Gujarat	10	Meghalaya	2	Uttarakhand	12
Haryana	4	Mizoram	4	West Bengal	11
Himachal Pradesh	10	Nagaland	2

Source: Polluted River Stretches for Restoration of Water Quality – 2025, Central Pollution Control Board; PRS.

Table 12: Targets achieved in selected components of Atal Bhujal Yojana

	Item	% Achievement		Item	% Achievement
Institutional Strengthening and Capacity Building	Trainings	61%	Incentives	Public Disclosure of Groundwater Data – Water Level	96%
	Construction of Piezometers	117%		Public Disclosure of Groundwater Data – Water Quality	93%
	Digital Water Level Recorder	101%		Public Disclosure of Groundwater Data – Hydrogeological Reports	2%
	Digital/Analog Water Level Indicators	100%		Water Security Plans	100%
	Rain Gauge	100%		Financing of Water Security Plans	95%
	Water Flow Meters	63%		Adoption of practices for efficient water use	149%
	Water Quality Testing Kit	74%		Improvement in rate of groundwater decline	47%

Note: Data is cumulative for the period 2020-26.
Source: ABY Dashboard, accessed on January 3, 2026; PRS.