Highlights Capital expenditure by the Ministry has grown at a CAGR of 33% from 2012-13 to 2026-27. Share of private sector in road construction has declined from 51% in 2014-15 to about 15% in 2023-24. Outstanding debt of NHAI has come down from 3.48 lakh crore in 2021-22 to Rs 2.4 lakh crore in November 2025.

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways formulates and administers policies for road transport, and transport research.  It is also involved in the construction and maintenance of National Highways (NHs) through the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), and the National Highway and Infrastructure Development Corporation Limited (NHIDCL).  It deals with matters relating to road transport, safety, and vehicle standards, through the implementation of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.  This note looks at the proposed expenditure of the Ministry for 2026-27, and key issues in the sector.

Overview of finances

In 2026-27, the Ministry has been allocated Rs 3,09,875 crore, an 8% increase over the revised estimates for 2025-26.[1]  This is 6% of the total estimated expenditure (Rs 53,47,314 crore) of the government in 2026-27.1  Major allocations are towards NHAI and expenditure on roads and bridges (see Table 1).

Table 1: Allocation for the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (in Rs crore)

	2024-25	2025-26 RE	2026-27 BE	% Change
Total	2,99,460	2,87,142	3,09,875	8%
Of which:
NHAI	1,68,602	1,70,266	1,87,293	10%
Roads and Bridges	1,30,965	1,16,337	1,21,999	5%
Road transport and safety	254	360	400	11%

Note: RE is revised estimates, BE is budget estimates, % change from 2025-26 RE to 2026-27 BE.  NHAI is National Highways Authority of India.
Sources: Union Budget Documents 2026-27; PRS.

Capital expenditure by the Ministry has increased significantly, from Rs 5,471 crore in 2012-13 to Rs 2,94,167 crore in 2026-27.  Between 2012-2026, capital expenditure has grown at an annual CAGR of about 33%.  Over the same time, revenue expenditure has been about Rs 13,307 crore on an average (see Figure 1).

Union Budget Announcement 2026-27 The central government announced the development of a new freight corridor from Dakuni (West Bengal) to Surat (Gujarat), for sustainable movement of cargo.  A new East Coast Industrial Corridor will be developed, with a well-connected node at Durgapur.

Figure 1: Revenue vs Capital expenditure (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimates of 2025-26 taken as actuals.
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Trends in Utilisation

Over the last few years, the Ministry has been consistently spending more than the budget estimates (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: 100% utilisation of funds by the Ministry in the past few years (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimates of 2025-26 taken as actuals.
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Allocation to NHAI

NHAI is responsible for the development and maintenance of national highways.[2]  For 2026-27, Rs 1,87,293 crore (60% of the Ministry’s budget) has been allocated to NHAI.1  This is 10% higher than the revised estimates for 2025-26.  Budgetary support towards NHAI is used for upgradation of highway network under the Bharatmala Pariyojana.[3]  The Union government approved Bharatmala Pariyojana in 2017, an umbrella programme covering a road length of 34,800 km, of which NHAI is responsible for development of 30,464 km.17  It aims to reduce the cost of logistics and improve connectivity in the country.[4]

Figure 3: Utilisation of funds by NHAI (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimates of 2025-26 taken as actuals.
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Allocation to Roads and Bridges

In 2026-27, Rs 1,21,999 crore has been allocated towards roads and bridges.1  This is 5% higher than the revised estimates for 2025-26.  Expenditure under roads and bridges includes: (i) development of NHs, (ii) projects related to expressways, (iii) increasing the number of lanes under various projects, and (iv) development of road connectivity in left-wing extremism affected areas. 

Figure 4: Allocation to Roads and Bridges (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimates of 2025-26 taken as actuals.     
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Allocation to Road Transport and Safety

In 2026-27, road transport and safety has been allocated Rs 400 crore, an 11% increase over the revised estimates of 2025-26.1  On an average, utilisation has been about 63% between 2017-26. 

Figure 5: Allocation to Road Transport and Safety (in Rs crore)

Note: Revised estimates of 2025-26 taken as actuals.     
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Funds Managed by the Ministry

The Ministry manages various funds to finance road infrastructure projects.  These are the: (i) Central Road and Infrastructure Fund (CRIF), (ii) Permanent Bridge Fees Fund (PBFF), (iii) Monetisation of National Highways Fund (NHMF), and (iv) National Investment Fund (NIF). 

These funds are financed through methods such as: (i) levy of a specific cess, (ii) collection of tolls, (iii) monetisation of highways and (iv) proceeds from the disinvestment of public companies.  Allocations to the Ministry from these funds are used for highway development, building road infrastructure in states and UTs, safety and maintenance expenditure, construction of other roads and bridges, and repayment of debt. 

Central Road and Infrastructure Fund (CRIF)

The CRIF is a non-lapsable fund created to service infrastructure projects.[5]  CRIF is funded by a cess levied on petrol and diesel called the Road and Infrastructure Development Cess.  This amount is eventually released to the NHAI, and to the state/UT governments for the development of infrastructure sectors such as transport, energy, water, sanitation, and others.5  In 2026-27, Rs 46,930 crore is estimated to be collected as road and infrastructure cess, an increase of 3% from the revised estimates of 2025-26 (Rs 45,780 crore).[6]  Rs 44,675 crore was collected in 2024-25.

Allocation to NHAI from CRIF

NHAI increased market borrowings from 2017-18 to fund Bharatmala Pariyojana.[7]^,[8]  Due to rising debt obligations, central government halted NHAI’s market borrowing since 2022-23, and increased budgetary support (see Figure 6).8  NHAI’s debt peaked in 2021-22, at Rs 3.48 lakh crore.[9]  As of November 2025, the total outstanding debt of the NHAI stood at Rs 2,39,818 crore.[10]   No allocation to NHAI is being financed from the CRIF in 2026-27.1  Since 2023-24, share of transfers from CRIF has come down (see Figure 7).  The reduction in transfers from CRIF is being compensated by gross budgetary support.

Figure 6: NHAI borrowing has stopped since 2022-23 (in Rs crore)

Note: IEBR is Internal and Extra Budgetary Resources.
Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Figure 7: Share of transfers to NHAI from CRIF (in Rs crore)

Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Schemes of states and UTs met from CRIF

In 2026-27, Rs 10,430 crore is estimated to be utilised for states and UTs from the CRIF.1  This is 5% more than the revised estimates for 2025-26. 

Figure 8: CRIF allocation towards States and UTs (in Rs crore)

Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Permanent Bridge Fees Fund (PBFF) 

The PBFF is funded by revenue collected by the government through: (i) fees levied for the use of certain permanent bridges on NHs by motor vehicles, (ii) toll on NHs, and (iii) share of government revenue received on some Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects.  These funds are released to NHAI for the development of NHs entrusted to it.  In 2026-27, Rs 35,027 crore has been allocated from the PBFF.1  This is 6% more than the revised estimates of 2025-26.

Figure 9:  Allocations to NHAI from PBFF (in Rs crore)

Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

National Investment Fund (NIF) 

The NIF was created in 2005 and receives proceeds from disinvestments of public sector enterprises.[11]  The fund is also used to finance the Special Accelerated Road Development Programme in North East (SARDP-NE).11  In 2026-27, Rs 18,361 crore is budgeted to be transferred from the NIF.1  This is 84% higher than the revised estimates for 2025-26.  The entire amount will be spent on SARDP-NE.

The Ministry develops road network in north-eastern states under the SARDP-NE programme.[12]  The programme seeks to provide connectivity to backward and remote areas and ensure that headquarters in the northeastern region seek to be connected by at least two-lane highway standards.12  The program was started in 2005.  The Standing Committee on Transport (2022) had observed that Phase-A of the project, scheduled to be completed by March 2014, was delayed till 2023-24 due to:  (i) land acquisition, (ii) less working season, (iii) non-availability of local agencies, (iv) scarcity of good quality quarry materials, and (v) poor performance of contractors.[13]  The total length of works sanctioned under SARDP-NE was 5,998 km (original 6,418 km).[14]  Of this, 5,714 km length (95% of sanctioned length) had been completed by December 2024.14

Figure 10: NIF Allocation towards roads and bridges (in Rs crore)

Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Monetisation of National Highways Fund (NHF) 

The NHF is financed by monetising certain public-funded national highway projects.[15]  This includes transferring maintenance of certain stretches to private contractors on a long-term basis.15  The fund is being used for repayment of NHAI’s debt obligations.  In 2026- 27, Rs 30,000 crore is expected to be utilised from the NHF, an 11% decrease from the revised estimates of 2025-26.

Figure 11: NHF Allocation towards NHAI (in Rs crore)

Sources: Demand for grants of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways for various years; PRS.

Issues and analysis

Road Network

India has the second largest road network in the world, of about 64 lakh km.[16]  This includes NHs, expressways, state highways, district roads, and village roads (see table 2).  NHs constitute 2% of the road network but cater to 40% of traffic.[17]

Table 2: Road network in India (in km)

Road category	Length	% share
National Highway	1,32,995	2.1%
State Highway	1,78,749	2.8%
District Road	6,16,964	9.7%
Rural Roads*	44,95,948	70.7%
Urban Roads	5,48,394	8.6%
Project Roads	3,86,954	6.1%
Total	63,60,004	100%

Note: Data as of March 31, 2020. *Rural roads include 9 lakh km of roads constructed under Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.
Sources: Annual Report, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, 2024-25; PRS.

Total road length increased from 4 lakh km in 1951 to 64 lakh km in 2020.16  Road length recorded a CAGR of 3.3% between 2010-20.16  Length of high-speed corridors expanded from 93 km in 2014 to 2,474 km in 2024.16  Length of four lane and above NHs increased from 18,278 km in 2014 to 45,947 km in 2024.16

Figure 12: National highway network (in km)

Sources: Annual Report, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, 2024-25; PRS.

Barring 2021-23, pace of target completion has improved since 2014, exceeding 150% in 2024-25.

Figure 13: NH awarded vs completed (in km)

Sources: Report no. 367, Standing Committee on Transport, Rajya Sabha, 2024; PRS.

Pace of construction has seen an uptick from 12 km/day in 2014-15 to 29 km/day in 2024-25 (see Figure 14).

Figure 14: Pace of construction (km/day)

Sources: Starred question 75, Lok Sabha, July 24, 2025; PRS.

Road density is defined as average road length per square km.  It is a measure of road quality and connectivity.  Overall road density improved from 1.42 km per square kilometre in 2011-12 to 1.92 km per square kilometre in 2018-19. [18]  As of 2018-19, rural road density is 1.46 km per square kilometre, and urban road density is 5.3 km per square kilometre.

Under Bharatmala Pariyojana, 82% (21,783 km) of the awarded projects had been completed until December, 2025 (see table 3).4  The programme deadlines have been revised from 2022 to 2027-28.

Table 3: Progress under Bharatmala Pariyojana as of December 2024 (in km)

Component	Awarded (km)	Completed (km)	% Completed
Economic Corridors	8,737	6,896	79%
Inter Corridors Roads	2,889	2,397	83%
Feeder Roads	973	702	72%
National Corridors	1,777	1,516	85%
National Corridor Efficiency Improvement	824	767	93%
Expressways	2,422	1,994	82%
Border Roads & International Connectivity Roads	1,619	1,466	91%
Coastal Roads	77	72	94%
Port Connectivity Roads	348	154	44%
Balance Road Works under NHDP	6,758	5,633	83%
Total	26,425	21,597	82%

Note: As of December 31, 2024.
Sources: Year End Review, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Press Information Bureau, December 2025; PRS.

Delay in completion

Land acquisition is often cited as a challenge that causes delays in road construction projects.  It leads to long gestation periods and cost overruns. According to NHAI, delays occur as there are no fixed timelines for declaring project awards.17  The Committee on Estimates (2024) noted delay in: (i) 189 projects due to land acquisition issues and (ii) 64 projects due to environmental clearance issues.[19] 

Delays in land acquisition

The implementation of The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act (RFCTLARR), 2013 increased the average cost of land acquisition for NHAI.[20]^,[21]  The Ministry (2018) had observed that land acquisition cost increased from about Rs 80 lakh per hectare before 2015 to about Rs 3.6 crore per hectare.20  For the development of NHs, NHAI spent about Rs 1.7 lakh crore on land acquisition across 23 states, between 2018-23.[22]

Table 4: Expenditure by NHAI on land acquisition (in Rs crore)

Year	Possession of land (Ha)	Expenditure on acquisition	Expenditure per hectare
2011-12	9,802	4,507	0.46
2012-13	6,762	5,404	0.80
2013-14	8,465	7,794	0.92
2014-15	6,733	9,098	1.35
2015-16	9,285	21,934	2.36
2016-17	7,491	17,823	2.38
2017-18	9,494	32,143	3.39
2018-19	18,850	36,048	1.91
2019-20	12,092	29,226	2.42
2020-21	20,038	35,858	1.79
2021-22	14,844	35,885	2.42
2022-23	17,568	39,836	2.27

Sources: NHAI Annual Reports of various years; PRS.

According to a CAG audit (2024), the four laning project of Patna-Buxar stretch covering 124 km, was ultimately called off due to (i) problems in acquiring land, and (ii) almost threefold increase in land compensation costs.[23]  Additionally, the Audit reported NHAI’s failure to pursue refund of Rs 533 crore paid as land compensation and contingency charges to Bihar government.

Forest and environmental clearance

CAG observed right of way issues in other projects.  Many projects under phase I of Bharatmala Pariyojana were taken up without first obtaining the required environmental clearances. [24]  The Bihar-Jharkhand border (Chordaha)-Gorhar six-laning project, awarded in January 2018, achieved only 62% progress by March 2023.24  The Barhi-Koderma stretch in Jharkhand, awarded in 2018, achieved 76% progress till March 2023.24 Similarly, the Purulia-Balrampur-Chandil (West Bengal-Jharkhand border) project, awarded in March 2018, reached about 70% progress till March 2023.24

Toll collection

According to the Ministry, total amount of user fee collected at NH toll plazas between 2022-25 was Rs 1.6 lakh crores.[25]  Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh generated the highest share across all three years (see Table 11 in Annexure).

Table 5: Toll collected (in Rs crore)

Year	User fee collection
2019-20	27,504
2020-21	27,927
2021-22	33,929
2022-23	48,032
2023-24	55,882

Sources: Unstarred question 1061, Rajya Sabha, December 4, 2024; PRS.

The Committee on Estimates (2025) noted several issues in toll collection and operationalisation: (i) tolls are collected despite ongoing maintenance work, (ii) lack of a mechanism to evaluate if toll charges justify operation and maintenance costs, and (iii) inadequate FASTag scanners resulting in long vehicle queues.[26]  The Committee urged the Ministry to: (i) revise the toll fee framework, including base rate and inflation indexing, (ii) establish a toll refund mechanism in cases of incomplete and unfit to use highways, and (iii) improve the FASTag system to improve traffic flow and queue lengths.   

NHAI mandated toll payment using FASTag in February 2021.23  Users with invalid FASTag are subject to a penal charge, resulting in payment of a double toll.  NHAI and concessionaires collect and retain the normal toll rate, and the double toll is deposited in the Consolidated Fund of India.  CAG Audit (2024) observed NHAI’s failure to recover double toll from concessionaires, resulting in loss of Rs 21 crore to Consolidated Fund of India.23  It also noted Rs 63 crore pending from other toll collection contractors (see table 6).

Table 6: Details of region-wise dues as of November 2022 (in Rs crore)

Regional Office	Total dues	Due from concessionaries
Gandhinagar	31	16
Mumbai	37	5
Nagpur	16	0
Total	84	21

Sources: Report no. 12 of 2024, CAG; PRS.

Asset monetisation

The government announced the National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) in the 2021-22 Union Budget.[27]  Under this programme, core brownfield assets, such as operational highways, railway stations, and airports would be monetised up to a value of six lakh crore rupees, between 2021-22 and 2024-25.27  This is carried out by transferring the responsibility of asset maintenance to private sector, in exchange for a right to collect fees.27  Monetisation of assets in the road sector is being carried out through: (i) Toll Operate Transfer (ToT) model, (ii) Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvIT), and (iii) Securitisation through SPVs.  As of November 2025, the Ministry had monetised Rs 1.5 lakh crore worth of assets.[28]  This is 95% of the proposed monetisation target of Rs 1.6 lakh crore by 2024-25.[29]

Table 7: Monetisation targets achieved as of July 24, 2025 (in Rs crore)

Mode	Monetisation
Toll Operate Transfer	58,265
InvIT	43,638
SPV Model	50,125
Total	1,52,028

Sources: Unstarred question 720, Lok Sabha, July 24, 2025; PRS.

Challenges to private sector participation

There are different modes of executing road projects.  These are: (i) Engineering Procurement Construction (EPC), (ii) Build Operate Transfer (Toll), (iii) Build Operate Transfer (Annuity) and (iv) Hybrid Annuity Model.[30] (see Annexure)

Figure 15: 56% of Bharatmala projects are awarded through EPC (in km)

Sources: Annual Report 2024-25, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways; PRS.

Government funded road projects are undertaken through Engineering Procurement Construction (EPC) contracts.30  Projects that involve private developers are undertaken through PPP mode.  In PPP projects, risk is shared between the government and private developer.30  These may involve: (i) financial risks related to construction of the road, (ii) traffic generation risk to ensure adequate toll collection and (iii) responsibility of road maintenance after construction.30

Table 8: Risks taken by government and private developer in different construction models

Model	Financing	Traffic	Maintenance
EPC/ Item Rate	Government	Government	Government
BOT (Toll)	Private	Private	Private
BOT (Annuity)	Private	Government	Private
HAM	Both	Government	Private

Sources: Report No. 296, Role of Highways in Nation Building, Standing Committee on Transport, Rajya Sabha, 2021; PRS.

Private sector can bring in additional funding and contribute to increased capital expenditure.  However, the share of private sector investment in national highway development projects has seen a decline.  In 2014-15, private sector accounted for 51% of financing and 40% was financed through budgetary support by the government.[31]  9% of the finances were raised through market borrowings.31  As of 2023-24, 75% of the financing was carried out through budgetary support, 15% through private sector investment, and 10% through monetisation of NHs.31  No amount was financed through market borrowings.31 

Figure 16: Budgetary support, borrowing and private investment in roads (in Rs crore)

Sources: Annual Report 2023-24, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways; PRS.

As per RBI data on industry wise deployment of gross bank credit, share of roads in infrastructure has been about 22% between 2019-25 (see Table 9).  According to the old format of the series, bank credit to roads was about 17% in March 2008 (see Table 12 in Annexure for details).  This has increased to about 24% in March 2025.

Table 9: Industry wise deployment of gross bank credit - % of roads in infrastructure (in Rs crore)

Outstanding as on last Friday in March	Infrastructure	% share of roads
2019	10,44,199	17%
2020	10,83,656	17%
2021	11,11,675	21%
2022	12,12,648	23%
2023	12,23,105	25%
2024	13,26,852	24%
2025	13,64,369	24%

Note: New format of RBI series: Industry wise deployment of gross bank credit.
Sources: Database on Indian Economy, Reserve Bank of India, as accessed on February 18, 2026; PRS.

Earlier NITI Aayog reports noted slowdown in private investments from 2012-13.[32]  Slowdown in investments was across new projects and already awarded projects.  The Economic Survey (2014-15) identified issues in PPP contracts including: (i) focus on minimising costs than providing efficient services, (ii) risks not allocated to the party that is best suited to manage them, and (iii) no clear rules for revising contracts when problems arise.[33]  Latest editions of the Economic Survey (2024-25 and 2025-26) highlight the importance of private funding for infrastructure.[34]^,[35]  They reiterate the role of private participation in PPPs, for financing and delivery of projects.

Poor allocation towards maintenance

The Standing Committee on Transport (2023) noted a pattern of under-allocation as compared to the Ministry’s demand for ‘Maintenance of NHs - financed from CRIF’ between 2015-22.[36]  Although budgeted allocation for maintenance of national highways has seen a decline, actual expenditure towards maintenance of national highways, including expenditure undertaken by NHAI and NHIDCL has increased (Figure 17).  Further, the Committee observed spending of Rs 4,490 crore on maintaining 25,000 km of NHs in 2023 was inadequate.  This was about 17% of India’s NH network.  It recommended the Ministry to request for increased allocation in the subsequent years.

Figure 17: Allocation and expenditure on NHs (in Rs crore)

Sources: Report No. 342, Demand for Grants, Standing Committee on Transport, Rajya Sabha, 2023; PRS.

Maintenance of national highway stretches is handled by contractors during the Defect Liability Period (DLP) in EPC projects.[37]  It is undertaken by concessionaires for stretches under concession models (including asset monetisation).  As of 2025, only about 38% (55,448 km) of the 1.46 lakh km NH network was under DLP or concession period.37  The remaining network is maintained by the Ministry through performance-based maintenance contracts (PBMC) and short-term maintenance contracts (STMC).

Road accidents and fatalities

Between 2012 and 2022, fatalities in accidents have grown at an annualised average rate of 2%.[38]  India contributes to about 10% of all road accident deaths worldwide, with just 1% of the world’s vehicles.[39]^,[40]   National Highways with share of 2.1% of total road network in the country accounted for 36.5% of total fatalities in 2023.  The Standing Committee on Transport (2023) urged the Ministry to target a quantifiable reduction of road accident fatalities in the ongoing decade.40

The Public Accounts Committee (2025) observed lack of public and stakeholder consultation during the preparation of detailed project reports.26  Several highway stretches collapsed due to failure to integrate site specific inputs.  The Committee also noted design oversight in highway construction resulting in repeated slope failure, pavement cracking and waterlogging issues.     

The Committee observed absence of an emergency mechanism alongside high-speed and remote highways.  In 2024, 4.8 lakh road accidents were recorded across all states (see Table 15 in Annexure).[41]  It also urged the Ministry to establish an emergency response system, integrated with GPS-enabled ambulances, highway patrol, and recovery vehicles for immediate trauma response.  

Clean Mobility

Total logistics cost for India in 2023-24 was Rs 24 lakh crore.[42]  Of this, cost of transportation amounted to Rs 10 lakh crore (42% of the total logistics cost).42

The bulk of India’s logistics is handled through road transport, about 70% of domestic freight demand in 2022.[43]^,44 NITI Aayog estimates that by 2050, the freight demand transported by road would grow to 9.6 trillion tonne kilometres.[44]  To handle the freight demand, the number of trucks on Indian roads is expected to grow from four million in 2022 to about 17 million in 2050.44 As of date, 92% of all goods vehicles in India are diesel powered.[45]  This is followed by CNG and petrol vehicles at 4% and 2% respectively.45  The share of electric goods vehicles is about 0.1%.45

The International Energy Agency (2022) estimated that about 12% of India’s energy related emissions come from the road sector.43  NITI Aayog (2022) observed that shifting the additional capacity to electric trucks, may be beneficial from both economic and environmental standpoints.44  This is due to: (i) lower tailpipe emissions of electric vehicles (EVs), and (ii) lower cost of electric power as compared to diesel. According to NITI Aayog, the transition to electric trucks can result in a 46% reduction in fuel costs, thereby bringing down transportation costs.  This has the estimated potential to reduce total logistics costs by about 17%.44

Shifting to electric vehicles has also been recommended for environmental considerations.  However, overall emissions of an EV depend on the source of electricity used to charge its battery.  As of 2023, coal was used to generate 74% of all electric power.[46]  Shifting to cleaner energy sources of fuel such as solar and wind energy may help address this issue.

Adoption of electric trucks would require a supportive policy environment.43  The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has undertaken some measures to promote clean mobility.  These include: (i) waiver of road tax and registration fee for EVs, (ii) issuance of green licence plate for EVs for permit exemption, (iii) setting up EV charging infrastructure through highway wayside amenities, and (iv) strengthening of vehicle emissions norms.43^,[47]^,[48]^,[49]  The Ministry is also implementing the Vehicle Scrapping Policy from 2022.43^,[50]  This policy aims to phase out old and unfit vehicles that cause pollution.50  As of July 2024, 60 registered vehicle scrapping facilities and 75 automated testing stations are operational in India.50  A total of 96,980 unfit vehicles have been scrapped as of July 15, 2024.50